Share:


Brand crisis response strategies: a typologies continuum

    Bich Ngoc Do   Affiliation
    ; Tuan Phong Nham   Affiliation

Abstract

This purpose of this study is to provide a spectrum to illustrate all applicable response strategies towards brand crisis management. A qualitative systematic method is adopted to review 128 relevant papers and synthesized in a brand crisis response typologies continuum. The findings were illustrated in the continuum which includes two main categories – primary response group with seven levels ranked lowest to highest by organizational involvement and responsibility, and secondary response group such as bolstering). This research result might enrich the current literature of brand crisis management which is fragmented and provide a clear guideline so that scholars and practitioners might track all pertinent solutions depending on low to high level of brands’ effort towards handling problems. Recognizing the discrepancy among response strategies, marketers and branders can choose either singular or merged solutions shown in the map to form a timely response to brand crisis, which is the main factor to crisis response success.

Keyword : brand crisis management, brand crisis response strategy(ies), primary response strategies, and secondary response strategies

How to Cite
Do, B. N., & Nham, T. P. (2021). Brand crisis response strategies: a typologies continuum. Business: Theory and Practice, 22(1), 146-158. https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2021.12586
Published in Issue
Apr 30, 2021
Abstract Views
1648
PDF Downloads
1445
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References

Ahluwalia, R., Burnkrant, R. E., & Unnava, H. R. (2000). Consumer response to negative publicity: the moderating role of commitment. Journal of Marketing Research, 37(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.37.2.203.18734

Alonso-Almeida, M. del M., & Bremser, K. (2013). Strategic responses of the Spanish hospitality sector to the financial crisis. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 32, 141−148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.05.004

An, S.-K., Park, D.-J., Cho, S., & Berger, B. (2010). A cross-cultural study of effective organizational crisis response strategy in the United States and South Korea. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 4(4), 225–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2010.515543

Ang, S. H. A., Leong, S. M., & Kotler, P. (2000). The Asian apocalypse: crisis marketing for consumers and businesses. Long Range Planning, 33(1), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-6301(99)00100-4

Arendt, C., LaFleche, M., & Limperopulos, M. A. (2017). A qualitative meta-analysis of apologia, image repair, and crisis communication: Implications for theory and practice. Public Relations Review, 43(3), 517–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.03.005

Baghi, I., & Gabrielli, V. (2019). The role of crisis typology and cultural belongingness in shaping consumers’ negative responses towards a faulty brand. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 28(5), 653−670. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-03-2018-1806

Barton, L. (1993). Crisis in organizations: Managing and communicating in the heat of chaos. College Divisions South-Western.

Benoit, W. L. (1995). Accounts, excuses, and apologies. State University of New York Press.

Benoit, W. L. (1997). Image repair discourse and crisis communication. Public Relations Review, 23(2), 177−186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0363-8111(97)90023-0

Bowen, M., Freidank, J., Wannow, S., & Cavallone, M. (2017). Effect of perceived crisis response on consumers’ behavioral intentions during a company scandal – an intercultural perspective. Journal of International Management, 24(3), 222−237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2017.12.001

Bowen, S. A., & Zheng, Y. (2015). Auto recall crisis, framing, and ethical response: Toyota’s missteps. Public Relations Review, 41(1), 40–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.10.017

Bradford, J. L., & Garrett, D. E. (1995). The effectiveness of corporate communicative responses to accusations of unethical behaviour. Journal of Business Ethics, 14(11), 875–892. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00882067

Brown, K. A., & Ki, E. J. (2013). Developing a valid and reliable measure of organizational crisis responsibility. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 90, 363–384. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699013482911

Brown, K. A., & White, C. L. (2010). Organization–public relationships and crisis response strategies: impact on attribution of responsibility. Journal of Public Relations Research, 23(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2010.504792

Bundy, J., & Pfarrer, M. D. (2015). A burden of responsibility: The role of social approval at the onset of a crisis. Academy of Management Review, 40(3), 345−369. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2013.0027

Bundy, J., Pfarrer, M. D., Short, C. E. & Coombs, W. T. (2017). Crises and crisis management: integration, interpretation, and research development. Journal of Management, 12(1), 1492063−1668003. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316680030

Cheng, Y., & Lee, C.-J. (2019). Online crisis communication in a post-truth Chinese society: Evidence from interdisciplinary literature. Public Relations Review, 101826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2019.101826

Chun-ju, F., Hung-Baesecke, & Chen, Y. (2013). The effects of organization–public relationship types and quality on crisis attributes. In K. Sriramesh, A. Zerfass, & J. Kim (Ed.), Public relations and communication management current trends and emerging topics (1st ed.). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9780203079256

Claeys, A. S., & Cauberghe, V. (2014). What makes crisis response strategies work? The impact of crisis involvement and message framing. Journal of Business Research, 67(2), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.10.005

Claeys, A., & Coombs, W. (2020). Organizational crisis communication: suboptimal crisis response selection decisions and behavioral economics. Communication Theory, 30(3), 290−309. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtz002

Coombs, W. T. (1995). Choosing the right words: The development of guidelines for the selection of the “appropriate” crisis response strategies. Management Communication Quarterly, 8, 447–476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0893318995008004003

Coombs, T. W., & Holladay, S. J. (2006). Unpacking the halo effect: reputation and crisis management. Journal of Communication Management, 10(2), 123–137. https://doi.org/10.1108/13632540610664698

Coombs, W., & Holladay, S. (2002). Helping crisis managers protect reputational assets. Management Communication Quarterly, 16(2), 165−186. https://doi.org/10.1177/089331802237233

Coombs, W. T. (2006a). Crisis management: A communicative approach. In C. H. Botan, & V. Hazleton (Eds.), Public relations theory II. Lawrence Erlbaum.

Coombs, W. T. (2006b). The protective powers of crisis response strategies’. Journal of Promotion Management, 12(3−4), 241–260. https://doi.org/10.1300/J057v12n03_13

Coombs, W. T. (2007a). Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: the development and application of situational crisis communication theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550049

Coombs, W. T. (2007b). Ongoing crisis communication: Planning, managing, and responding (2nd ed.). SAGE.

Coombs, W. T. (2015). The value of communication during a crisis: Insights from strategic communication research. Business Horizons, 58(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2014.10.003

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, J. S. (2012). The paracrisis: The challenges created by publicly managing crisis prevention. Public Relations Review, 38(3), 408−415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2012.04.004

Coombs, W. T., & Jean, S. (2014). How publics react to crisis communication efforts. Journal of Communication Management, 18(1), 40−57. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-03-2013-0015

Coombs, W. T., & Laufer, D. (2018). Global crisis management–current research and future directions. Journal of International Management, 24(3), 199−203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2017.12.003

Coombs, W. T., & Tachkova, E. R. (2018). Scansis as a unique crisis type: theoretical and practical implications. Journal of Communication Management, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1108/JCOM-08-2018-0078

Coombs, W. T., Frandsen, F., Holladay, S. J., & Johansen, W. (2010). Why a concern for apologia and crisis communication? Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 15(4), 337–349. https://doi.org/10.1108/13563281011085466

Coombs, W. T. & Holladay, S. J. (2001). An extended examination of the crisis situation: A fusion of the relational management and symbolic approaches. Journal of Public Relations Research, 13, 321−340. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532754XJPRR1304_03

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (2008). Comparing apology to equivalent crisis response strategies: clarifying apology’s role and value in crisis communication. Public Relations Review, 34(3), 252−257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2008.04.001

Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (1996). Communication and attributions in a crisis: an experimental study in crisis communication. Journal of Public Relations Research, 8(4), 279–295. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532754xjprr0804_04

Custance, P., Walley, K., & Jiang, D. (2012). Crisis brand management in emerging markets. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 30(1), 18–32. https://doi.org/10.1108/02634501211193895

Cwalina, W., & Falkowski, A. (2018). Crisis management: government strategy in framing reform proposals and communications. Journal of Political Marketing, 17(2), 122–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377857.2018.1447754

Dawar, N., & Lei, J. (2009). Brand crises: the role of brand familiarity and crisis relevance in determining the impact on brand evaluations’. Journal of Business Research, 62(4), 509−516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.02.001

De Blasio, A., & Veale, R. (2009). Why say sorry? Influencing consumer perceptions post organizational crises. Australasian Marketing Journal (AMJ), 17(2), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2009.05.007

DiStaso, M. W., Vafeiadis, M., & Amaral, C. (2015). Managing a health crisis on Facebook: How the response strategies of apology, sympathy, and information influence public relations. Public Relations Review, 41(2), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2014.11.014

Do, B., Nham, T., & Nguyen, T. (2019). An investigation the main internal brand crisis antecedents. Business: Theory and Practice, 20, 234−247. https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2019.23

Dutta, S., & Pullig, C. (2011). Effectiveness of corporate responses to brand crises: The role of crisis type and response strategies. Journal of Business Research, 64(12), 1281−1287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.01.013

Einwiller, S., & Johar, G. V. (2007, May 22−25). Preventing damage from accusations − the case of WalMart. In the Paper Presented at the 36th Annual European Marketing Academy Conference. Reykjavik, Iceland.

Euromonitor International, E. (2019). Understanding the Techsumer: how technology is changing global consumption. In Market Research Report, Euromonitor. https://www.euromonitor.com/understanding-the-techsumer-how-technology-ischanging-global-consumption/report

Gistri, G., Corciolani, M., & Pace, S. (2019). Does the perception of incongruence hurt more? Customers’ responses to CSR crises affecting the main reputation dimension of a company. Journal of Marketing Management, 35(7−8), 605–633. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2019.1580761

Grundy, M., & Moxon, R. (2013). The effectiveness of airline crisis management on brand protection: A case study of British Airways. Journal of Air Transport Management, 28, 55–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2012.12.011

Gumgum. (2018). Brandrx: the new brand safety crisis. https://gumgum.com/guides/the-new-brand-safety-crisis

Hansen, N., Kupfer, A.-K., & Hennig-Thurau, T. (2018). Brand crises in the digital age: The short- and long-term effects of social media firestorms on consumers and brands. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 35(4), 557−574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2018.08.001

Hearit, K. M. (1997). On the use of transcendence as an apologia strategy: The case of Johnson controls and its fetal protection policy. Public Relations Review, 23(3), 217–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0363-8111(97)90033-3

Hearit, K. M. (2006). Crisis management by apology: Corporate response to allegations of wrong doing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410615596

Hegner, S. M., Beldad, A. D., & Kraesgenberg, A.-L. (2016). The impact of crisis response strategy, crisis type, and corporate social responsibility on post-crisis consumer trust and purchase intention. Corporate Reputation Review, 19(4), 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-016-0007-y

Hewett, K., & Lemon, L. (2019). A process view of the role of integrated marketing communications during brand crises. Qualitative Market Research, 22(3), 497−524. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-10-2016-0097

Huang, Y.-H. (2006). Crisis situations, communication strategies, and media coverage. Communication Research, 33(3), 180–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206287077

Huang, Y.-H. (2008). Trust and relational commitment in corporate crises: the effects of crisis communicative strategy and form of crisis response. Journal of Public Relations Research, 20(3), 297–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627260801962830

Ihlen, O. (2002). Defending the Mercedes A-Class: combining and changing crisis-response strategies. Journal of Public Relations Research, 14(3), 185–206. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532754XJPRR1403_2

Ismail, N. B. M., Pagulayan, M. A., Francia, C. M. A., & Pang, A. (2018). Communicating in the post-truth era: Analyses of crisis response strategies of Presidents Donald Trump and Rodrigo Duterte. Journal of Public Affairs, e1883. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1883

Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226388533.001.0001

James, E. H., Wooten, L. P., & Dushek, K. (2011). Crisis management: informing a new leadership research agenda. The Academy of Management Annals, 5(1), 455–493. https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2011.589594

Jimenez, R., Redondo, B., Molina, R., Martinez-Domingo, M. A., Hernandez-Andres, J., & Vera, J. (2020). Short-term effects of text-background color combinations on the dynamics of the accommodative response. Vision Research, 166, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2019.11.006

Jin, Y. (2013). Examining publics’ crisis responses according to different shades of anger and sympathy. Journal of Public Relations Research, 26(1), 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2013.848143

Johar, G. V., Birk, M. M., & Einwiller, S. A. (2010). How to save your brand in the face of crisis. MIT Sloan Management Review, Summer, 57−64.

Jung, O J., & Baeck, S. (2016). What drives consumer’s responses to brand crisis? The moderating roles of brand associations and brand-customer relationship strength. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 25(6), 550−567. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-10-2014-0725

Kahn, W. A., Barton, M. A., & Fellows, S. (2013). Organizational crises and the disturbance of relational systems. Academy of Management Review, 38(3), 377–396. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2011.0363

Kim, S., & Atkinson, L. J. (2014). Responses toward corporate crisis and corporate advertising. Journal of Promotion Management, 20(5), 647–665. https://doi.org/10.1080/10496491.2014.946201

Kim, S., & Sung, K. H. (2013). Revisiting the effectiveness of base crisis response strategies in comparison of reputation management crisis responses. Journal of Public Relations Research, 26(1), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2013.795867

Kim, S., Zhang, X. A., & Zhang, B. W. (2016). Self-mocking crisis strategy on social media: Focusing on Alibaba chairman Jack Ma in China. Public Relations Review, 42(5), 903–912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2016.10.004

Kim, Y., & Park, H. (2017). Is there Still a PR Problem Online? Exploring the effects of different sources and crisis response strategies in online crisis communication via social media. Corporate Reputation Review, 20(1), 76–104. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41299-017-0016-5

Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., & Opresnik, M. O. (2018). Principles of marketing (17e. Global ed.). Pearson.

Kriyantono, R., & McKenna, B. (2020). Crisis response vs crisis cluster: a test of situational crisis communication theory on crisis with two crisis clusters. Indonesian Public Relations, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.17576/JKMJC-2019-3501-15

Kumar, M., Parsad, C., Bamel, U., Prashar, S., & Parashar, A. (2019). Influence of pre-crisis reputation and COO on diminishing a product-harm crisis. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 28(4), 857−872. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOA-08-2019-1852

Lamin, A., & Zaheer, S. (2012). Wall Street vs. Main Street: firm strategies for defending legitimacy and their impact on different stakeholders. Organization Science, 23(1), 47–66. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1100.0631

Lange, D., & Washburn, N. T. (2012). Understanding attributions of corporate social irresponsibility. The Academy of Management Review, 37(2), 300−326. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2010.0522

Laufer, D., Garrett, T. C., & Ning, B. (2017). The moderating role of power distance on the reaction of consumers to the CEO as a spokesperson during a product harm crisis: insights from China and South Korea. Journal of International Management, 24(3), 215−221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2017.12.002

Lee, S. Y., & Atkinson, L. (2019). Never easy to say “sorry”: Exploring the interplay of crisis involvement, brand image, and message appeal in developing effective corporate apologies. Public Relations Review, 45(1), 178−188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2018.12.007

Lee, S. Y., Sung, Y. H., Choi, D., & Kim, D. H. (2019). Surviving a crisis: how crisis type and psychological distance can inform corporate crisis responses. Journal of Business Ethics, 168, 795−811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04233-5

Li, Y., Yang, K., Chen, J., Gupta, S., & Ning, F. (2019). Can an apology change after-crisis user attitude? The role of social media in online crisis management. Information Technology & People, 32(4), 802−827. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITP-03-2017-0103

Lin, C.-P., Chen, S.-C., Chiu, C.-K., & Lee, W.-Y. (2011). Understanding purchase intention during product-harm crises: moderating effects of perceived corporate ability and corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 102(3), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0824-y

Liu, B., Kim, H., & Pennington-Gray, L. (2015). Responding to the bed bug crisis in social media. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 47, 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2015.03.005

Liu, B., Pennington-Gray, L., & Krieger, J. (2016). Tourism crisis management: Can the extended parallel process model be used to understand crisis responses in the cruise industry? Tourism Management, 55, 310−321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.02.021

Liu, X., Lischka, H. M., & Kenning, P. (2018). Asymmetric cognitive, emotional and behavioural effects of values-related and performance-related negative brand publicity Journal of Product & Brand Management, 27(2), 128–145. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-11-2016-1351

Ma, L., & Zhan, M. (Monica). (2016). Effects of attributed responsibility and response strategies on organizational reputation: A meta-analysis of situational crisis communication theory research. Journal of Public Relations Research, 28(2), 102–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/1062726X.2016.1166367

Massey, J. E., & Larsen, J. P. (2006). Crisis management in real time. Journal of Promotion Management, 12(3−4), 63–97. https://doi.org/10.1300/J057v12n03_06

Miller, A. N., & Littlefield, R. S. (2010). Product recalls and organizational learning: ConAgra’s responses to the peanut butter and pot pie crises. Public Relations Review, 36(4), 361–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.06.001

Nikulina, V., Simon, D., Ny, H., & Baumann, H. (2019). Contextadapted urban planning for rapid transitioning of personal mobility towards sustainability: a systematic literature review. Sustainability, 11(4), 1007. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11041007

Okumus, F., & Karamustafa, K. (2005). Impact of an economic crisis: Evidence from Turkey. Annals of Tourism Research, 32(4), 942–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2005.04.001

Park, H. (2017). Exploring effective crisis response strategies. Public Relations Review, 43(1), 190−192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2016.12.001

Pearce, J. A., & Michael, S. C. (2006). Strategies to prevent economic recessions from causing business failure. Business Horizons, 49(3), 201–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2005.08.008

Pfarrer, M. D., Decelles, K. A., Smith, K. G., & Taylor, M. S. (2008). After the fall: reintegrating the corrupt organization. Academy of Management Review, 33(3), 730–749. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2008.32465757

Pickering, C., Grignon, J., Steven, R., Guitart, D., & Byrne, J. (2015). Publishing not perishing: How research students transition from novice to knowledgeable using systematic quantitative literature reviews. Studies in Higher Education, 40(10), 1756−1769. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.914907

Richards Jr O., Wilson, C., Boyle, K., & Mower, J. (2017). A knockout to the NFL’s reputation?: A case study of the NFL’s crisis communications strategies in response to the Ray Rice scandal. Public Relations Review, 43(3), 615–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.02.015

Rouvaki, C., Assiouras, I., & Siomkos, G. (2014). A predictive model for affective, cognitive and behavioral consumers’ reactions to product-harm crises: applying product involvement, product type and crisis response strategies. Ideas in Marketing: Finding the New and Polishing the Old, 564–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-10951-0_202

Sano, K., & Sano, H. (2019). The effect of different crisis communication channels. Annals of Tourism Research, 79, 102804. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102804

Sawalha, I. (2019). After the crisis: repairing a corporate image. Journal of Business Strategy (ahead-of-print). https://doi.org/10.1108/JBS-04-2019-0075

Semercioz, F., Pehlivan, C., Sozuer, A., & Mert, A. (2015). Crisis management practices and strategic responses through customer loyalty and price strategy in hard times: evidence from fine-dining restaurants. Procedia − Social and Behavioral Sciences, 207, 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.10.164

Shim, K., & Yang, S.-U. (2016). The effect of bad reputation: The occurrence of crisis, corporate social responsibility, and perceptions of hypocrisy and attitudes toward a company. Public Relations Review, 42(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2015.11.009

Singh, J., Crisafulli, B., & Quamina, L. T. (2019). Corporate image at stake: The impact of crises and response strategies on consumer perceptions of corporate brand alliances. Journal of Business Research, 117, 839−849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.01.014

Singh, J., Crisafulli, B., Quamina, L. T., & Xue, M. T. (2020). “To trust or not to trust”: The impact of social media influencers on the reputation of corporate brands in crisis. Journal of Business Research, 119, 464−480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.03.039

Siomkos, G., Triantafillidou, A., Vassilikopoulou, A., & Tsiamis, I. (2010). Opportunities and threats for competitors in product‐harm crises. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 28(6), 770–791. https://doi.org/10.1108/02634501011078156

Sohn, Y. J., & Lariscy, R. W. (2015). A “buffer” or “boomerang?”− The role of corporate reputation in bad times. Communication Research, 42, 237–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650212466891

Souiden, N., & Pons, F. (2009). Product recall crisis management: the impact on manufacturer’s image, consumer loyalty and purchase intention. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 18(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1108/10610420910949004

Standop, D., & Grunwald, G. (2009). How to solve product‐harm crises in retailing? International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 37(11), 915–932. https://doi.org/10.1108/09590550910999352

Su, L., Stepchenkova, S., & Kirilenko, A. P. (2019). Online public response to a service failure incident: Implications for crisis communications. Tourism Management, 73, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2019.01.011

Vafeiadis, M., Bortree, D. S., Buckley, C., Diddi, P., & Xiao, A. (2019). Refuting fake news on social media: nonprofits, crisis response strategies and issue involvement. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 29(2), 209−222. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-12-2018-2146

Vanhamme, J., Swaen, V., Berens, G., & Janssen, C. (2015). Playing with fire: Aggravating and buffering effects of ex ante CSR communication campaigns for companies facing allegations of social irresponsibility. Marketing Letters, 26(4), 565–578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-014-9290-5

Vassilikopoulou, A., Siomkos, G., Chatzipanagiotou, K., & Pantouvakis, A. (2009). Product-harm crisis management: Time heals all wounds? Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 16(3), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2008.11.011

Wang, J., Anne, M., & McLean, G. N. (2015). Understanding crisis and crisis management: an Indian perspective. Human Resource Development International, 19(3), 192–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2015.1116242

Wang, Y., & Laufer, D. (2019). How does crisis management in China differ from the West?: A review of the literature and directions for future research. Journal of International Management, 26(1), 100708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intman.2019.100708

Ware, B. L., & Linkugel, W. A. (1973). They spoke in defense of themselves: On the generic criticism of apologia. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 59(3), 273–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335637309383176

Weiner, B. (1985). Spontaneous causal search. Psychological Bulletin, 97(1), 74−84. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.97.1.74

Xu, K., & Li, W. (2012). An ethical stakeholder approach to crisis communication: a case study of Foxconn’s 2010 employee suicide crisis. Journal of Business Ethics, 117(2), 371–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1522-0

Zavyalova, A., Pfarrer M. D., Reger R. K., & Shapiro D. L. (2012). Managing the message: the effects of firm actions and industry spill-overs on media coverage following wrongdoing. Academy of Management Journal, 55(5), 1079–1101. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2010.0608

Zhu, L., Anagondahalli, D., & Zhang, A. (2017). Social media and culture in crisis communication: McDonald’s and KFC crises management in China. Public Relations Review, 43(3), 487–492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.03.006