Urban characteristics, identities, and conservation of Chinatown Melbourne
Abstract
Many unique ethnic enclaves have been established in Australia due to the country’s rich and diverse immigration history. Chinatown Melbourne is one of the oldest and most iconic examples that date back to the gold rush period in the 1850s. Previous studies have examined many aspects of the precinct, such as its architectural styles and demography shifts. However, there is a lack of research investigating the enclave’s urban characteristics and the consequent urban identity. This knowledge gap can lead to unfeasible heritage conservation decisions with a lack of emphasis on the precinct’s unique identity. Hence, this study aims to scrutinize the precinct’s past urban evolution and its present characteristics to better understand its heritage value and enhance future urban policies. Qualitative data are collected using archival and literature review, map analysis, and field observation. Overall, by elucidating Chinatown Melbourne’s urban characteristics and key urban movements, the study depicts the precinct’s identity, addressing elements like the main, laneway, gateway, and public space. The output of the research provides insights into how future heritage policies and initiatives can benefit from the case study in enhancing heritage protection and sustaining its urban identity. Further research is recommended to incorporate quantitative research methods and compare results with this study’s findings.
Keyword : urban heritage, heritage conservation, urban identity, Chinatown, migration
How to Cite
Geng, S., Chau, H.-W., Jamei, E., & Vrcelj, Z. (2023). Urban characteristics, identities, and conservation of Chinatown Melbourne. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 47(1), 20–34. https://doi.org/10.3846/jau.2023.17383
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
References
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Blake, A. M. T. (1975). Melbourne’s Chinatown: The evolution of an inner urban ethnic quarter. The University of Melbourne.
Bowen, A. (2011). The merchants: Chinese social organisation in colonial Australia. Australian Historical Studies, 42(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/1031461X.2010.542766
Byrne, D. (2016). The need for a transnational approach to the material heritage of migration: The China–Australia corridor. Journal of Social Archaeology, 16(3), 261–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469605316673005
Byrne, D. (2020). Dream houses in China: Migrant-built houses in Zhongshan county (1890s–1940s) as transnationally “distributed” entities. Fabrications, 30(2), 176–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/10331867.2020.1749218
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Cartiere, C., & Tan, L. (2020). The Routledge companion to art in the public realm. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429450471
Chau, H. (2016). Migrancy and architectural hybridity: The Num Pon Soon society building in Melbourne Chinatown, the See Yup temple in south Melbourne and the Kaiping Diaolou in China as case studies. In A. Brennan & P. Goad (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand (pp. 110–120). SAHANZ.
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Chiang, Y. C., & Deng, Y. (2017). City gate as key towards sustainable urban redevelopment: A case study of ancient Gungnae City within the modern city of Ji’an. Habitat International, 67, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.06.007
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Dovey, K., Adams, R., & Jones, R. (2018). Urban choreography: Central Melbourne. Melbourne University Press.
Dovey, K., Wollan, S., & Woodcock, I. (2012). Placing Graffiti: Creating and Contesting Character in Inner-city Melbourne. Journal of Urban Design, 17(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2011.646248
Ellis, G., Hunter, R., Tully, M. A., Donnelly, M., Kelleher, L., & Kee, F. (2016). Connectivity and physical activity: Using footpath networks to measure the walkability of built environments. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 43(1), 130–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265813515610672
Erdoğan, B. D., & Ayataç, H. (2015). Assessment of urban identity characteristics in public places: A case study of Ortaköy square. A/Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, 12(1), 115–125.
Fitzgerald, J. (2007). Big white lie. University of New South Wales Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/27516331
Freeman, K., & Pukk, U. (2013). Laneways of Melbourne. Melbourne Books.
Freestone, R. (2010). Urban nation: Australia’s planning heritage. Csiro Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1071/9780643100138
García, J. A., Gómez, M., & Molina, A. (2012). A destination-branding model: An empirical analysis based on stakeholders. Tourism Management, 33(3), 646–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.07.006
Gehl, J. (2013). Cities for people. Island Press.
Geng, S., Chau, H. W., Jamei, E., & Vrcelj, Z. (2022). Understanding the street layout of Melbourne’s Chinatown as an urban heritage precinct in a grid system using space syntax methods and field observation. Sustainability, 14(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912701
Gertner, D. (2011). Unfolding and configuring two decades of research and publications on place marketing and place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7(2), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2011.7
Guo, Q., Wang, H. C., & Xu, J. (2008). Modification proposal-gateways of Melbourne’s Chinatown. The University of Melbourne.
Hartke, K. (2022). Chinatowns are struggling to survive: Grace Young is reminding Americans why they matter. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2022/01/10/chinatowns-struggle-covid-anti-asian-violence/
Howitt, W. (1858). Land, labour, and gold (2nd ed.). Arthur Hall, Virtue & Co.
Hudson, S., Cárdenas, D., Meng, F., & Thal, K. (2017). Building a place brand from the bottom up: A case study from the United States. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 23(4), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766716649228
Ip, D. (2005). Contesting Chinatown: Place-making and the emergence of “ethnoburbia” in Brisbane, Australia. GeoJournal, 64(1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-005-3926-1
Jakubowicz, A., & Moustafine, M. (2010). Living on the outside: Cultural diversity and the transformation of public space in Melbourne. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Journal, 2(3), 55–75. https://doi.org/10.5130/ccs.v2i3.1603
Jones, P. (2005). Chinese–Australian journeys: Records on travel, migration and settlement, 1860–1975. National Archives of Australia.
Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space. Wiley.
Li, H., & Qian, Z. (2017). Archaeological heritage tourism in China: The case of the Daming Palace from the tourists’ perspective. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12(4), 380–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2016.1208205
Lucas, R. (2016). Research methods for architecture. Laurence King Publishing.
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. The MIT Press.
Mak, A. L. (2009). Negotiating identity: Ethnicity, tourism and Chinatown. Journal of Australian Studies, 27(77), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443050309387854
Matan, A., & Newman, P. (2012). Jan Gehl and new visions for walkable Australian cities. World Transport Policy and Practice, 17(4), 30–41.
McCartney, S., Kaupp, C., & Senayah, M. (2019). Turning laneways into public places. The Ryerson University.
Melbourne City Council and Victorian Tourism Commission. (1985). Chinatown Action Plan. Catalogue of the National Library of Australia.
Moreau, M. (2015). A methodology for exploring relationships among physical features of residential back-laneways and their uses. In P. Burton & H. Shearer (Eds.), State of Australian cities conference. Griffith University.
Mundell, M. (2019). From hotbeds of depravity to hidden treasures: The narrative evolution of Melbourne’s laneways. TEXT, 23(55), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.52086/001c.25421
Murillo, F. (2017, September 7–8). Migrants and rapid urbanization: A new agenda for humanitarian and development urban planning? Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/27/papers/VI/paper-Murillo-final.pdf
Nichol, B. (2002). Sweet and sour history: Chinese restaurants in Melbourne in the “White Australia” decades. The University of Melbourne.
Plevoets, B., & Sowińska-Heim, J. (2018). Community initiatives as a catalyst for regeneration of heritage sites: Vernacular transformation and its influence on the formal adaptive reuse practice. Cities, 78, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2018.02.007
Poulton, F. (2011). Little Latrobe Street and the historical significance of Melbourne’s laneways. The Journal of Public Record Office Victoria, 10, 95–104.
Relph, E. (1976). Place and placelessness (research in planning and design) (1st ed.). Sage Publications Ltd.
Ruiz Pulpón, Á. R., & Cañizares Ruiz, M. del C. (2020). Enhancing the territorial heritage of declining rural areas in Spain: Towards integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches. Land, 9(7), 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9070216
Ruzzier, M. K., & Petek, N. (2012). The importance of diverse stakeholders in place branding: The case of “I feel Slovenia.” Anatolia, 23(1), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2011.653631
Satzewich, V. (1989). Racisms: The reactions to Chinese migrants in Canada at the turn of the century. International Sociology, 4(3), 311–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/026858089004003005
Saunokonoko, M. (2022). After two years of cold shoulder, foreign workers and international students rush back down under. 9 News. https://www.9news.com.au/national/international-student-working-holiday-visas-back-to-pre-pandemic-covid-19-levels/9be29762-319f-410a-b97c-25f6f3cc4f18
Seitz, A., & Foster, L. (1985). Dilemmas of immigration — Australian expectations, migrant responses: Germans in Melbourne. Journal of Sociology, 21(3), 414–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/144078338502100306
Victoria State Government. (2022a). Heritage listings. https://www.heritage.vic.gov.au/heritage-listings
Victoria State Government. (2022b). Victorian dining and entertainment program. https://www.vic.gov.au/victorian-dining-and-entertainment-program
Wang, H., & Yang, Y. (2019). Neighbourhood walkability: A review and bibliometric analysis. Cities, 93, 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.04.015
Wang, S., Sigler, T., Liu, Y., & Corcoran, J. (2018). Shifting dynamics of Chinese settlement in Australia: An urban geographic perspective. Geographical Research, 56(4), 447–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-5871.12293
Wang, X. (1987). The Lingxing archway of Nanjing Chaotian palace in Melbourne. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 1, 60.
White, L., & Leung, D. (2015). Wishing you good health, prosperity and happiness: Exploring the rituals and traditions of Chinese New Year. In L. Leung & J. Warwick (Eds.), Rituals and traditional events in the modern world (pp. 79–89). Routledge.
Whitfield, R. (2015). Walkable city, living streets. In P. Baptista (Ed.), Quality of life (pp. 201–212). East-West Institute for Advanced Studies.
Wolf, A. P. (1970). Chinese kinship and mourning dress. In M. Freedman (Ed.), Family and kinship in Chinese society (pp. 190–207). Stanford University Press.
Wong, L. Y. L. (2018). Melbourne Chinatown redevelopment: The unwritten perspective from the Chinese community. The University of Melbourne.
Yang, S., & Fang, J. (2020). Can the Western world’s oldest Chinatowns survive COVID-19? ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-06/coronavirus-covid19-chinatown-pandemic/12307584?nw=0&r=Gallery
Yang, W. (2021). Overnight, lanterns were hung in Melbourne’s Chinatown, and a wall of Lanterns was erected. The merchant called out: Unacceptable. Sydney Today. https://www.sydneytoday.com/content-1021410452912021
Yeen, C. C. (1986). Blooding a lion in Little Bourke Street: The creation, negotiation and maintenance of Chinese ethnic identity in Melbourne. The University of Adelaide.
Young, T. L. (2000). Community not “slum” in the Cohen Place neighbourhood. The University of Melbourne.
Zhang, R. (2006). Is Melbourne Chinatown effective in today’s world? The University of Melbourne.
Zhang, X., Ren, A., Chen, L., & Zheng, X. (2019). Measurement and spatial difference analysis on the accessibility of road networks in major cities of China. Sustainability, 11(15), 4209. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154209
Ang, I. (2014). Beyond Chinese groupism: Chinese Australians between assimilation, multiculturalism and diaspora. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 37(7), 1184–1196. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2014.859287
Ang, I. (2016). At home in Asia? Sydney’s Chinatown and Australia’s ‘Asian century.’ International Journal of Cultural Studies, 19(3), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367877915573763
Barraclough, A. (2022). Melbourne’s population fell during COVID-19, but it’s still set to overtake Sydney. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-04-09/melbourne-population-falling-still-on-track-biggest-city/100949158
Bate, W. (1994). Essential but unplanned: The story of Melbourne’s lanes. State Library of Victoria and the City of Melbourne.
Beynon, D. (2019). Beyond big gold mountain: Chinese-Australian settlement and industry as integral to colonial Australia. Fabrications, 29(2), 184–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/10331867.2019.1580408
Blake, A. M. T. (1975). Melbourne’s Chinatown: The evolution of an inner urban ethnic quarter. The University of Melbourne.
Bowen, A. (2011). The merchants: Chinese social organisation in colonial Australia. Australian Historical Studies, 42(1), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/1031461X.2010.542766
Byrne, D. (2016). The need for a transnational approach to the material heritage of migration: The China–Australia corridor. Journal of Social Archaeology, 16(3), 261–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469605316673005
Byrne, D. (2020). Dream houses in China: Migrant-built houses in Zhongshan county (1890s–1940s) as transnationally “distributed” entities. Fabrications, 30(2), 176–201. https://doi.org/10.1080/10331867.2020.1749218
Cannon, M. (1993). Melbourne after the Gold Rush. Loch Haven Books.
Cartiere, C., & Tan, L. (2020). The Routledge companion to art in the public realm. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429450471
Chau, H. (2016). Migrancy and architectural hybridity: The Num Pon Soon society building in Melbourne Chinatown, the See Yup temple in south Melbourne and the Kaiping Diaolou in China as case studies. In A. Brennan & P. Goad (Eds.), Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand (pp. 110–120). SAHANZ.
Chau, H., Dupre, K., & Xu, B. (2016). Melbourne Chinatown as an iconic enclave. In C. Bosman & A. Dedekorkut-Howes (Eds.), Proceedings of the 13th Australasian Urban History Planning History Conference (pp. 39–51). Australasian Urban History/Planning History Group and Griffith University.
Chiang, Y. C., & Deng, Y. (2017). City gate as key towards sustainable urban redevelopment: A case study of ancient Gungnae City within the modern city of Ji’an. Habitat International, 67, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2017.06.007
Dansie, M. (2022). Chinatowns facing “identity crises”. The Junction. https://junctionjournalism.com/2022/06/17/chinatowns-face-a-worldwide-identity-crisis-melbournes-is-adapting-to-survive/
Davison, G., Dunstan, D., & McConville, C. (1985). The outcasts of Melbourne: Essays in social history. Allen & Unwin.
Dovey, K., Adams, R., & Jones, R. (2018). Urban choreography: Central Melbourne. Melbourne University Press.
Dovey, K., Wollan, S., & Woodcock, I. (2012). Placing Graffiti: Creating and Contesting Character in Inner-city Melbourne. Journal of Urban Design, 17(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809.2011.646248
Ellis, G., Hunter, R., Tully, M. A., Donnelly, M., Kelleher, L., & Kee, F. (2016). Connectivity and physical activity: Using footpath networks to measure the walkability of built environments. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 43(1), 130–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265813515610672
Erdoğan, B. D., & Ayataç, H. (2015). Assessment of urban identity characteristics in public places: A case study of Ortaköy square. A/Z ITU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture, 12(1), 115–125.
Fitzgerald, J. (2007). Big white lie. University of New South Wales Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/27516331
Freeman, K., & Pukk, U. (2013). Laneways of Melbourne. Melbourne Books.
Freestone, R. (2010). Urban nation: Australia’s planning heritage. Csiro Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1071/9780643100138
García, J. A., Gómez, M., & Molina, A. (2012). A destination-branding model: An empirical analysis based on stakeholders. Tourism Management, 33(3), 646–661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.07.006
Gehl, J. (2013). Cities for people. Island Press.
Geng, S., Chau, H. W., Jamei, E., & Vrcelj, Z. (2022). Understanding the street layout of Melbourne’s Chinatown as an urban heritage precinct in a grid system using space syntax methods and field observation. Sustainability, 14(19). https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912701
Gertner, D. (2011). Unfolding and configuring two decades of research and publications on place marketing and place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 7(2), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1057/pb.2011.7
Guo, Q., Wang, H. C., & Xu, J. (2008). Modification proposal-gateways of Melbourne’s Chinatown. The University of Melbourne.
Hartke, K. (2022). Chinatowns are struggling to survive: Grace Young is reminding Americans why they matter. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2022/01/10/chinatowns-struggle-covid-anti-asian-violence/
Howitt, W. (1858). Land, labour, and gold (2nd ed.). Arthur Hall, Virtue & Co.
Hudson, S., Cárdenas, D., Meng, F., & Thal, K. (2017). Building a place brand from the bottom up: A case study from the United States. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 23(4), 365–377. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766716649228
Ip, D. (2005). Contesting Chinatown: Place-making and the emergence of “ethnoburbia” in Brisbane, Australia. GeoJournal, 64(1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-005-3926-1
Jakubowicz, A., & Moustafine, M. (2010). Living on the outside: Cultural diversity and the transformation of public space in Melbourne. Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Journal, 2(3), 55–75. https://doi.org/10.5130/ccs.v2i3.1603
Jones, P. (2005). Chinese–Australian journeys: Records on travel, migration and settlement, 1860–1975. National Archives of Australia.
Lefebvre, H. (1991). The production of space. Wiley.
Li, H., & Qian, Z. (2017). Archaeological heritage tourism in China: The case of the Daming Palace from the tourists’ perspective. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 12(4), 380–393. https://doi.org/10.1080/1743873X.2016.1208205
Lucas, R. (2016). Research methods for architecture. Laurence King Publishing.
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. The MIT Press.
Mak, A. L. (2009). Negotiating identity: Ethnicity, tourism and Chinatown. Journal of Australian Studies, 27(77), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/14443050309387854
Matan, A., & Newman, P. (2012). Jan Gehl and new visions for walkable Australian cities. World Transport Policy and Practice, 17(4), 30–41.
McCartney, S., Kaupp, C., & Senayah, M. (2019). Turning laneways into public places. The Ryerson University.
Melbourne City Council and Victorian Tourism Commission. (1985). Chinatown Action Plan. Catalogue of the National Library of Australia.
Moreau, M. (2015). A methodology for exploring relationships among physical features of residential back-laneways and their uses. In P. Burton & H. Shearer (Eds.), State of Australian cities conference. Griffith University.
Mundell, M. (2019). From hotbeds of depravity to hidden treasures: The narrative evolution of Melbourne’s laneways. TEXT, 23(55), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.52086/001c.25421
Murillo, F. (2017, September 7–8). Migrants and rapid urbanization: A new agenda for humanitarian and development urban planning? Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/events/pdf/expert/27/papers/VI/paper-Murillo-final.pdf
Nichol, B. (2002). Sweet and sour history: Chinese restaurants in Melbourne in the “White Australia” decades. The University of Melbourne.
Plevoets, B., & Sowińska-Heim, J. (2018). Community initiatives as a catalyst for regeneration of heritage sites: Vernacular transformation and its influence on the formal adaptive reuse practice. Cities, 78, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2018.02.007
Poulton, F. (2011). Little Latrobe Street and the historical significance of Melbourne’s laneways. The Journal of Public Record Office Victoria, 10, 95–104.
Relph, E. (1976). Place and placelessness (research in planning and design) (1st ed.). Sage Publications Ltd.
Ruiz Pulpón, Á. R., & Cañizares Ruiz, M. del C. (2020). Enhancing the territorial heritage of declining rural areas in Spain: Towards integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches. Land, 9(7), 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9070216
Ruzzier, M. K., & Petek, N. (2012). The importance of diverse stakeholders in place branding: The case of “I feel Slovenia.” Anatolia, 23(1), 49–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2011.653631
Satzewich, V. (1989). Racisms: The reactions to Chinese migrants in Canada at the turn of the century. International Sociology, 4(3), 311–327. https://doi.org/10.1177/026858089004003005
Saunokonoko, M. (2022). After two years of cold shoulder, foreign workers and international students rush back down under. 9 News. https://www.9news.com.au/national/international-student-working-holiday-visas-back-to-pre-pandemic-covid-19-levels/9be29762-319f-410a-b97c-25f6f3cc4f18
Seitz, A., & Foster, L. (1985). Dilemmas of immigration — Australian expectations, migrant responses: Germans in Melbourne. Journal of Sociology, 21(3), 414–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/144078338502100306
Victoria State Government. (2022a). Heritage listings. https://www.heritage.vic.gov.au/heritage-listings
Victoria State Government. (2022b). Victorian dining and entertainment program. https://www.vic.gov.au/victorian-dining-and-entertainment-program
Wang, H., & Yang, Y. (2019). Neighbourhood walkability: A review and bibliometric analysis. Cities, 93, 43–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2019.04.015
Wang, S., Sigler, T., Liu, Y., & Corcoran, J. (2018). Shifting dynamics of Chinese settlement in Australia: An urban geographic perspective. Geographical Research, 56(4), 447–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-5871.12293
Wang, X. (1987). The Lingxing archway of Nanjing Chaotian palace in Melbourne. Chinese Landscape Architecture, 1, 60.
White, L., & Leung, D. (2015). Wishing you good health, prosperity and happiness: Exploring the rituals and traditions of Chinese New Year. In L. Leung & J. Warwick (Eds.), Rituals and traditional events in the modern world (pp. 79–89). Routledge.
Whitfield, R. (2015). Walkable city, living streets. In P. Baptista (Ed.), Quality of life (pp. 201–212). East-West Institute for Advanced Studies.
Wolf, A. P. (1970). Chinese kinship and mourning dress. In M. Freedman (Ed.), Family and kinship in Chinese society (pp. 190–207). Stanford University Press.
Wong, L. Y. L. (2018). Melbourne Chinatown redevelopment: The unwritten perspective from the Chinese community. The University of Melbourne.
Yang, S., & Fang, J. (2020). Can the Western world’s oldest Chinatowns survive COVID-19? ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-06-06/coronavirus-covid19-chinatown-pandemic/12307584?nw=0&r=Gallery
Yang, W. (2021). Overnight, lanterns were hung in Melbourne’s Chinatown, and a wall of Lanterns was erected. The merchant called out: Unacceptable. Sydney Today. https://www.sydneytoday.com/content-1021410452912021
Yeen, C. C. (1986). Blooding a lion in Little Bourke Street: The creation, negotiation and maintenance of Chinese ethnic identity in Melbourne. The University of Adelaide.
Young, T. L. (2000). Community not “slum” in the Cohen Place neighbourhood. The University of Melbourne.
Zhang, R. (2006). Is Melbourne Chinatown effective in today’s world? The University of Melbourne.
Zhang, X., Ren, A., Chen, L., & Zheng, X. (2019). Measurement and spatial difference analysis on the accessibility of road networks in major cities of China. Sustainability, 11(15), 4209. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11154209